Chinese Ceramics shows a continuous development since the pre-dynasty era and is one of the most significant forms of Chinese art and ceramics globally. The first pottery was made during the Palaeolithic era. Chinese ceramics range from construction materials such as bricks and tiles, to handmade pottery ships fired in fires or kilns, to sophisticated Chinese porcelain items made for imperial palaces and for export. Porcelain is very synonymous with China which is still called "china" in the use of everyday English.
Most Chinese ceramics then, even of the best quality, are made on an industrial scale, so some names of individual pottery are recorded. Many of the most important kiln workshops are owned by or provided for the Emperor, and a large number of ceramics are exported as diplomatic gifts or for trade from an early date, originally to East Asia and the Islamic world, and then from around the 16th century. to Europe. Chinese ceramics have a tremendous influence on other ceramic traditions in these areas.
The more their long history, Chinese ceramics can be classified between those made for imperial palaces, whether to use or distribute, made for discriminatory Chinese markets, and for the popular Chinese market or for export. Several types of goods are also made only or mainly for special uses such as burial in graves, or for use on the altar.
Video Chinese ceramics
Terminologi dan kategori
The earliest Chinese pottery was a pottery, continuously produced for utilitarian purposes throughout Chinese history, but was increasingly rarely used for good items. Stoneware, fired at higher temperatures, and naturally resistant to water, was developed very early and continued to be used for fine earthenware in many areas for most periods; the tea bowl in Jian ware and the Jizhou ware made during the Song dynasty are examples.
Porcelain, in the Western definition, is "a collective term consisting of all white ceramic ceramics and translucent light, no matter what material it is used to make it or for what it uses". Chinese tradition recognizes two main categories of ceramics, high-fired [caÃÆ'?] And low-fired [táo?], Thus without stoneware, which in Chinese tradition is largely grouped with (and translated as) porcelain. Terms like "porcellaneous" or "near-porcelain" can be used for stonewares with characteristics such as porcelain. The Erya defines porcelain [ca?] As "fine, solid pottery" [tÃÆ'¡o?].
Chinese pottery can also be classified as north or south . China is comprised of two distinct and geologically distinct planes, unified by the action of continental drift and forming the intersection between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, sometimes known as the Nanshan-Qinling division. Contrast geology from the north and south causes differences in the raw materials available for making ceramics; especially in the north having no petunse or "porcelain stone", required for porcelain on a strict definition. This type of goods can come from a very widespread kiln-site in either northern or southern China, but both are almost always indistinguishable, and influences throughout this section may affect shape and decoration, but will be based on very different clay bodies, on a base effect. The type of kiln is also different. The southern materials have high silica, low alumina and high potassium oxide, the opposite of the northern material in each case. Northern materials are often very suitable for stoneware, while in the south there is also a very suitable area for porcelain.
Maps Chinese ceramics
Materials
Chinese porcelain is mainly made by the combination of the following ingredients:
- Kaolin - an important ingredient consisting mostly of clay kaolinite minerals.
- Porcelain stone - decomposed foaming or feldspar rocks, historically also known as petunse.
- Feldspar
- Quartz
Technical developments
In the context of Chinese ceramics, the term porcelain does not have a universally accepted definition (see above). This in turn has caused confusion about when the first Chinese porcelain was made. Claims have been made for the late Eastern Han dynasty (100-200 AD), the Three Kingdoms period (220-280 AD), the Six Dynasties (220-589 AD), and the Tang Dynasty (618-906 AD).
Kiln technology has always been a key factor in the development of Chinese pottery. The Chinese developed an effective kiln capable of firing about 1,000 Â ° C before 2000 BC. This is an updraft kiln, often built underground. The two main types of furnaces were developed around 200 AD and remained in use until modern times. It is a dragon kiln from a hilly, southern China, usually triggered by wood, long and thin and running on the slopes, and a horseshoe-shaped mantou in the northern Chinese plain, smaller and more compact. Both can reliably produce temperatures up to 1300 Â ° C or more required for porcelain. At the end of Ming, an egg-shaped kiln or zhenyao is developed in Jingdezhen, but is mainly used there. This is something of a compromise between other types, and offers a location in the firing room with various firing conditions.
History
Important specific pottery types, many of which come from more than one period, are handled individually in the lower parts.
Starting item
Pottery dating from 20,000 years ago was found on the Xianrendong Cave site, in Jiangxi province, making it among the earliest pottery ever found (and for now placing the Chinese nation ahead in a race with Japan where national prestige is a factor). Other reported findings are from 17,000-18,000 years ago in the Yuchanyan Cave in southern China.
By Central and Late Neolithics (around 5000 to 1500 BC), most of the larger archaeological cultures in China are sedentary peasants, who produce attractive and often large vessels, often painted thickly, or decorated with cut or impressed. Decorations are abstract or stylish animals - fish are a specialty in the Banpo river settlement. The Majiayao and other phases of Yangshao culture are well represented in Western museums; by the purple Banshan phase used in the slip-painting beside the black. During the 4th millennium of pottery wheels it seems that Chinese ceramic scientists have become Chinese inventions, although some areas of the West also claim honor. Earlier coils were used for large ships.
The ship's discovery is mostly in burial, and sometimes holds remnants. In 4100-2600 BC in the form of Dawenkou culture then familiar bronze Chinese rituals began to appear. One of the extraordinary ritual sites, Niuheliang in the north end, has produced many human statues, some about half the size of life.
Han Dynasty, 206 BC - 220 AD
Some experts believe the first porcelain was made in Zhejiang province during the Eastern Han dynasty. Shard recovered from the Han Han East archaeological site estimated the firing temperature ranges from 1,260 to 1,300 Â ° C (2,300-2,370 Â ° F). As far back as 1000 BC, the so-called "porcelain items" or "proto-porcelain" are made using at least some kaolins fired at high temperatures. The dividing line between two and true porcelain items is not clear. Archaeological discoveries have pushed the date for as early as the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD).
The last years Han saw the early development of the strange art form of hunping, or "soul jar": a funeral bottle topped with sculptural composition. This type of ship became widespread during the next Jin dynasty (265-420) and Six Dynasties.
The tombs of prominent figures in Tang are very popular throughout the community, but with more emphasis than later on model houses and farm animals. Green-glazed pottery, using tin-glazed pottery in part of the sancai formula, is used for some of this, though not for items to use, since the raw lead makes the glaze poisonous.
Sui and Tang Dynasty, 581-907 AD
During the Sui and Tang dynasties (581 to 907 AD), various ceramics, low-fire and high-fuel, were produced. These include the last best natural goods produced in China, most of the tin coated items (i) sancai (three colors). Many of the famous Tang Dynasty tombs, made only to be placed in the elite tomb close to the northern capital, are in sancai , while others are not painted or painted over slipping; paint now often fall. The sancai of ships may also be primarily for graves, of which they are all found; The glaze is less toxic than in Han, but it may still have to be avoided for use at the dinner table.
In the south the goods of Changsha Tongguan Kiln Site in Tongguan are very significant as the use of ordinary glaze painting; examples have been found in many places in the Islamic world. However, the production that is occupied and the underground painting remains a small technique for several centuries.
Yue stationery is a high-fueled celadon, lime-glazed at the time, and has a very sophisticated design, protected by the court. This also happened with the northern porcelain kilns in Henan and Hebei provinces, which for the first time fulfilled the definition of Western and Eastern porcelain, being pure white and translucent. One of the first mention of porcelain by a stranger was in the Chain of Chronicles written by the Arabian traveler and merchant Suleiman in 851 CE during the Tang dynasty who noted that:
The Arabs were used to glass, and he was sure that the porcelain he saw was not like that.
Liao, Song, Western Xia and Jin dynasties , 907-1276
The Song Dynasty controlled the last part of China controlled by the Chinese "Han" ethnic before the Mongol invasion. Culturally very advanced but militarily relatively weak. The artistic emphasis of Song pottery is on the delicate glaze effect and the graceful shape. "What is clear is that in the Song Dynasty that tends to maintain the aesthetic of conventional Confucianism, the blue color of destruction is totally unpopular, Confucian aesthetics emphasize simplicity, and the underground blue design is considered too ornamental."
Green ware or celadon is very popular, both in China and in export markets, which became increasingly important during that period. Yue ware is replaced by North Celadon and then in Longquan south celadon. White and black items are also important, especially in Cizhou equipment, and there are polychrome types, but the finer types of ceramics, for castles and poets, remain monochrome, depending on the effect and shape of the glaze. Various styles evolved in different fields, and were successfully imitated in other areas. Important kiln sites and stoneware include Ru, Jun, South Song Guan or official ware, Jian and Jizhou. Porcelain whiteness continues to be enhanced, and includes continuation of Ding ware and the arrival of qingbai which will replace it.
Liao, Xia and Jin were founded by illiterate, often sedentary people who conquered parts of China. Pottery production continues to be under their control, but their own artistic traditions merge to some degree with China, producing a distinctive new style.
Pottery from all these areas is mainly fired, with some pottery being produced because it is cheaper and more colored glazes. Some of the clay used is what is called kaolinite in the West. In some cases, the pot is preferred because of its darker color or better quality of work. Pottery uses local clay, and when it's dark or rough and they want a nice white body, they cover the clay with a white slip before applying the glaze.
The Yuan Dynasty, 1271-1368
The Mongol Yuan Dynasty imposed the movement of artists of all sorts around the Mongol Empire, which in ceramics brought great stylistic and technical influences from the Islamic world in the form of blue and white porcelain, with glaze paintings in cobalt. It has been described as "the last great innovation in ceramic technology". Decorations with colored paint patterns have long been characteristic of Chinese pottery, especially in popular Cizhou devices (mostly black on slip), but may be considered somewhat vulgar by courts and literary classes, and the best ceramics are monochrome, using earthy aesthetics with a perfect shape and a subtle glaze effect, often on top of a shallow ornament carved or molded to the surface.
This is in stark contrast to the bright colors and intricate designs developed under the Yuan, whose organization is largely based on Islamic art, especially metal, although animal and vegetable motifs are based on Chinese tradition. It was originally primarily made for export, but it became accepted in court, and for ceramic buyers smooth internally. The export market is ready to accept the style, which has continued to be produced ever since, both in China and around the world.
Therefore, improvements in water transport and reunification under Mongol rule, vessel production began to be concentrated near kaolin deposits, such as Jingdezhen, which gradually became the pre-eminent center for producing porcelain in various styles, positions ever since. The scale of production is greatly increased, and the scale and organization of kilns are becoming industry, with ownership by commercial syndicates, many divisions of labor, and other distinctive features of mass production. Several other types of pottery, especially Longquan celadon and Cizhou supplies, continue to grow.
Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644
The Ming Dynasty saw an extraordinary period of innovation in the manufacture of ceramics. Kiln investigates new techniques in design and shape, showing a tendency to color and painted design, and openness to foreign forms. Emperor Yongle (1402-24) was very curious about other countries (as evidenced by his support of extensive explorations conducted by Leun Zheng He to the Indian Ocean), and enjoyed unusual forms, many of which were inspired by metals Islam. During the Xuande period (1426-35), technical refinement was introduced in cobalt preparations used for underground blue decoration.
Before this cobalt had been brilliantly colored, but with a bloody tendency to shoot; by adding manganese color is more dull, but the line is sharper. Xuande porcelain is now considered the best of all Ming's output. The shaded ornament ( as on the left ) was perfected under Emperor Chenghua (1464-87), and was greatly appreciated by the next collector. Indeed, by the end of the 16th century, the era of Chenghua and Xuande's work - especially the grape cup - had grown so much in popularity, that their prices almost matched the original antiquities of the Song dynasty or even older. This award for ceramics relatively recently favored by literary scholars (such as Wen Zhenheng, Tu Long, and Gao Lian, quoted below); these people consider themselves a determinant of taste and find the aesthetics painted 'vulgar.'
In addition to these decorative innovations, the late Ming dynasties experienced a dramatic shift towards a market economy, exporting porcelain to the world on an unprecedented scale. So in addition to supplying porcelain for domestic use, the kiln in Jingdezhen became the main production center for large-scale porcelain exports to Europe beginning with the reign of Emperor Wanli (1572-1620). At this time, kaolin and pottery stones are mixed in equal amounts. Kaolin produces items with extraordinary strength when added to the paste; it also raises the whiteness of the body - a property that becomes a much sought after property, especially when blue-and-white goods are becoming more popular. Pottery stones can be fired at lower temperatures (1,250 Ã, Â ° C; 2,280Ã, Â ° F) of the paste mixed with kaolin, which requires 1,350 Ã, Â ° C (2,460Ã, Â ° F). This type of variation is important to remember because large kiln-shaped southern eggs vary greatly in temperature. Near the fire box was the hottest; near the chimney, at the end of the kiln, it's cooler.
Qing Dynasty, 1644-1911
The main source material on porcelain Qing dynasty is available from foreign residents and domestic writers. Two letters written by PÃÆ'¨re FranÃÆ'§ois Xavier d'Entrecolles, a Jesuit missionary and industrial spy who lived and worked in Jingdezhen in the early 18th century, explained in detail the manufacture of porcelain in the city. In his first letter dated 1712, d'Entrecolles describes the way in which pottery is destroyed, perfected and shaped into small white bricks, known in Chinese as petuntse . He then went on to describe chinese clay purification
Nothing but my curiosity could ever encourage me to do such research, but it seems to me that a brief description of all concerns of this kind of work may be useful in Europe.
In 1743, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, Tang Ying, the imperial superintendent in the city produced a memoir entitled "Twenty illustrations of porcelain making" . Original illustrations have been lost, but memoir text is still accessible.
Chinese pottery type
Tang funerary stuff
Sancai means three colors , green, yellow and cream white, all in lead-based glazes. Even some other colors can be used, including cobalt blue. In the West, Tang sancai items are sometimes referred to as egg-and-spinach .
Sancai items are northern items made with white secondary kaolin and buff-firing and fire clay. In the kilns located in Tongchuan, Neiqiu County in Hebei and Gongyi in Henan, the clay used for burial is similar to that used by potted pliers. The burial stuffs were fired at lower temperatures than contemporary whitewares. Tang dynasty tomb figures, such as the representation of famous camels and horses, are cast in sections, in molds with parts assembled together using clay slips. They are painted in sancai or simply coated with a white cloth, often with paint added over the glaze, which is now largely gone. In some cases, the degree of individuality is given to statues assembled with hand carvings.
Greenwares or celadon
The main group of celadon goods is named for the glaze, which uses iron oxide to provide a broad color spectrum centered on jade or olive green, but includes chocolate, beige and light blue. This is a range almost equal to jade, always the most prestigious material in Chinese art, and a broad resemblance contributes to the attraction of celadon for the Chinese. Celadon plain or decorated with help, which may be carved, etched or printed. Sometimes taken by the imperial palace, celadon has a more regular market with academic and secondary classes, and is also exported in large quantities. The important types are: Yue ware, Yaozhou's equipment and the wider North Celadons, Ru ware, Guan ware, and finally Longquan celadon.
Jian ware
Jian Zhan Dark goods, especially made up of tea goods, are made in kilns located in Jianyang, Fujian province. They reached the height of their popularity during the Song dynasty. They are made using locally won, iron-rich clays and fired in an oxidizing atmosphere at a temperature of 1,300 ° C (2,370 ° F). Glasir is made using clay similar to that used to form the body, unless mashed with gray. At high temperatures, the liquid glaze is separated to produce a pattern called "rabbit fur". When Jian's goods are tilted to fire, droplets trickle sideways, creating evidence of the incorporation of glaze liquids.
The Song Dynasty Jian Tea is also highly regarded and copied in Japan, where they are known as tenmoku .
New interest in history and cultural heritage in China has been revived since the 1990s. The Ji Yu Fang Lao The long burning place outside Wuyishan, Fujian in Shui Ji village under Master Xiong has been able to restart Jian Zhan's production using real clay. Kiln in Dehua County is also trying to recreate it.
Jizhou ware
Around the same time Jizhou ware was developed with it's glaze effect "tortoiseshell".
Ding ware
Despite not having such a high ranking as Ru Ru ware, the late Ming dynasty devotees, Gao Lian, gave Ding a title in a short attention in his volumes of the Eight Discourses on Living Art. Classified in the sixth discourse, the section on "pure pleasures of cultural laziness", Master Gao said:
Ru ware
Like Ding ware, Ru ware (Wade-Giles: ju ) is produced in North China for imperial use. The Ru kiln is near the northern Song capital in Kaifeng. In a similar way to the Longquan celadon, Ru pieces have small amounts of iron oxide in their glazes that oxidize and turn greenish when fired in the diminished atmosphere. Ru wares of various colors - from almost white to deep robin eggs - and often covered with reddish brown crackles. Cracking, or "crazing", is caused when the glaze cools and contracts faster than the body, so it should stretch and eventually divide, ( as seen in detail to the right; see also [1]). Art historian James Watt commented that the Song dynasty was the first period to view defeat as a virtue rather than a flaw. In addition, over time, the body becomes thinner and thinner, while the glazes become thicker, until at the end of the Southern Song 'green glaze' is thicker than the body, making it very 'fleshy' rather than 'bone,' 'To use the traditional analogy ( see the section on Guan ware, below ). Too, glazes tend to drip and pool a bit, making it thinner at the top, where the clay peeking through.
Like Ding ware, Song's imperial palace lost access to the Ru kilns after fleeing Kaifeng when the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty conquered northern China, and settled in Lin'an (now Hangzhou) in the south. There, Emperor Gaozong founded Guan Yao ('official kiln') just outside the new capital to produce imitations of Ru's goods. However, the grandchildren have remembered Ru ware as something unmatched by later efforts; Mr. Gao said, "Compared to Guan yao, the above is a finer substance and a more brilliant sparkle."
Jun ware
Guan ware
Guan (Wade-Giles: kuan ) ware, literally means "official" gear; So, surely Ru, Jun, and even Ding are Guan in the broad sense that is produced for the court. Usually the term in English applies only to those produced by the official, imperial-run kiln, which did not begin until the Southern Song dynasty escaped from the advanced Jin dynasty and settled in Lin'an. During this period the walls become very thin and the glaze is so thick that the latter replaces the first in its width. Like clay in the foothills around Lin'an, is a brownish color, and the glaze is so thick. Ge ware
While similar to Guan ware, Ge usually has a gray-blue glaze that is completely opaque with almost matte results. Crackle pattern is exaggerated, often prominent in thick black. Although still shrouded in mystery, many experts believe that Ge ware did not develop until the Southern Song Dynasty is very late or even the Yuan dynasty. However, the enthusiasm for it persisted throughout the Ming dynasty; Wen Zhenheng prefers to all other types of porcelain, especially for washing machines and water droplets (although he prefers jade washing brushes for porcelain, Guan and Ge are the best of ceramics, especially if they have toothed rims). The difference between Ming imitation then Song/Yuan Ge includes: Ming version replaces white porcelain body; they tend to be produced in various new forms, for example for ulama studios; glazes tend to be thinner and more luminous; and slip applied to the rim and base to simulate "brown mouth and iron leg" from Guan ware.
Qingbai Goods
Qingbai items (also called 'yingqing') were made in Jingdezhen and in many other southern kilns from the Northern Song dynasty until they disappeared in the 14th century by blue and white items decorated with ornate wall hangings. Qingbai in Chinese literally means "clear blue-white". The qingbai glaze is porcelain glaze , so called because it is made using stone pottery. The qingbai glaze is clear, but contains small quantities of iron. When applied over a white porcelain body, the glaze produces a turquoise blue color that gives the glaze of its name. Some have incised or formed decorations.
Song Dynasty qingbai bowl illustrated possibly made in Jingdezhen village of Hutian, which is also an imperial burning ground founded in 1004. The bowls incised decorations, possibly representing clouds or cloud reflections in the water. The body is white, translucent and has a very fine texture of sugar, indicating that it is made using mashed, mashed earthen stones instead of pottery and kaolin stones. The glaze and body of the bowl will be fired together, in a saggar in a large wood-burning fireplace, typical of a southern kiln in that period.
Though many Song and Yuan Dynasties, qingbai bowls were fired upside down in specially segmented saggars, the technique was first developed in the Ding kiln in Hebei province. Rims of these items are left without glaze but often tied with silver, copper or tin ribbons.
One of the remarkable examples of the qingbai porcelain is what is called the Fonthill Vase , described in the guide to Fonthill Abbey published in 1823.
The vase was made in Jingdezhen, probably around 1300 and was sent as a gift to Pope Benedict XII by one of the last Yuan emperors of China, in 1338. The mounts mentioned in the 1823 description are made of silver-plated silver and added to vases in Europe at 1381. The water color of an 18th-century vase complete with its mounts, but its own mounts were removed and lost in the 19th century. The vase is now in the National Museum of Ireland. It is often held that qingbai items are not subject to higher standards and regulations than other porcelain items, as they are made for everyday use. They are mass-produced, and receive little attention from scholars and antiquarians. Vase Fonthill, given by a Chinese emperor to a pope, may appear to cast at least some doubt on this view.
Blue and white stuff
Following the previous porcelain tradition qingbai , blue and white goods were coated using transparent porcelain glazes . The blue ornament is painted onto the porcelain body before it is glazed, using a very fine cobalt oxide mixed with water. Once the decoration has been applied, the pieces are glazed and fired.
It is believed that blue and white porcelain glazes were first made in the Tang dynasty. Only three complete pieces of blue and white Tang tiles are known to exist (in Singapore from the wrecks of Belitung Indonesia), but fragments dating from the 8th or 9th century have been found in Yangzhou in Jiangsu Province. It has been argued that its fragments come from a kiln in Henan province. In 1957, excavations at the pagoda site in Zhejiang province found the Northern Song bowl emblazoned with blue glaze and further fragments have been found on the same site. In 1970, small pieces of blue and white bowls, again dating from the 11th century, were also excavated in Zhejiang province.
In 1975, shards decorated with blue glaze were dug in a kiln in Jiangxi and, in the same year, a blue and white urn dug from a tomb dated 1319, in Jiangsu province. It is interesting to note that Yuan burial jars are adorned with glaze blue and red glaze and date 1338 is still in Chinese flavor, although at present the large-scale production of blue and white porcelain in Yuan dynasty, Mongol flavor has begun its influence in Jingdezhen.
Beginning in the early fourteenth century, blue and white porcelain quickly became the main product of Jingdezhen, culminating in its technical superiority during the final years of Emperor Kangxi's reign and continuing in the present to be an important product of the city..
The illustrated tea Caddy shows many characteristics of blue and white porcelain produced during the Kangxi period. The translucent body shown through a clear white glaze and cobalt decoration, applied in many layers, has a nice blue color. The ornament, a wise man in the landscape of lakes and mountains with stones blazing is the hallmark of that period. The piece will be fired in a saggar (a grounded ceramic case intended to protect pieces of kiln, smoke and gray debris during combustion) in a reduced atmosphere in kiln-fired wood burning, at a temperature approaching 1,350 ° C (2,460 ° F).
Typical blue-and-white porcelain is exported to Japan where it is known as the blue-white ware Tenkei or sometsukei . These items are considered to be ordered by tea experts for Japanese ceremonies. Blanc de Chine
Blanc de Chine is a type of Dehua white porcelain in Fujian province. This has resulted from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) to date. Large numbers arrived in Europe as Chinese Export Porcelain in the early 18th century and copied in Meissen and elsewhere.
The area along the Fujian coast is traditionally one of the major ceramic exporter centers. More than 180 kiln sites have been identified expanded within the historical range of the Song dynasty to date.
From the Ming dynasty, porcelain objects were made that reached a blend of glazes and bodies traditionally referred to as "white ivory" and "milk white". The special characteristic of the Dehua porcelain is the amount of tiny iron oxide in it, allowing it to be fired in an atmosphere that oxidizes into warm white or pale white color. (Wood, 2007)
Porcelain body is not very plastic but ships have been made from it. Donnelly, (1969, pp.xi-xii) lists the following types of products: figures, boxes, vases and jars, cups and bowls, fish, lamps, cup-stands, censers and flowerpots, animals, brush holder, wine and , Buddhist and Taoist figures, secular figures and puppets. There are many figures, especially religious figures, such as Guanyin, Maitreya, Lohan and Ta-mo.
Many Dehua porcelain factories today make figures and cutlery in a modern style. During the Cultural Revolution "Dehua Craftsmen apply their best skills to produce a statue of Mao Zedong and the immaculate Communist leaders.The portraits of new operatic proletarian stars in their most famous roles are produced on an enormous scale." The characters of Mao Zedong were later disliked but have been revived for foreign collectors.
Famous artists at blanc de Chine , such as the late Ming He Chaozong period, signed their creations with their seals. Goods include model numbers, cups, bowls and stick-holder joss.
Many of the best examples of blanc de Chine are found in Japan where white varieties are called hakugorai or "Korean white", a term often found in tea ceremony circles. The British Museum in London has many pieces of Blanc de Chine, having received as a gift in 1980 throughout P.J.Donnelly's collection.
Famille jaune, noire, rose, verte is the term used to classify Chinese porcelain by the dominant element in the color palette.The Famille verte (????, Kangxi wucai , also ???, Suscai ), was adopted in the Kangxi period (1662-1722), using green and red iron with other overglaze colors. It developed from the style of Wucai (??, "Five colors").
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Famille jaune is a variation using enamel famille verte on yellow soil. Famille noire (Mandarin: ?????, Modi susancai ) uses black soil (though some clogged stuff has black color added in the 19th century).
Famille rose (known in Chinese as Fencai (??) or Ruancai (??, simplified ??), meaning 'soft color ', and then as Yangcai (??), meaning' foreign color ') was introduced during the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1654-1722), probably around 1720. It was used mainly in pink or purple and remained popular throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, also widely adopted by European factories.
Famille rose enamel ware allows a greater range of colors and tones than was previously possible, allowing the depiction of more complex images, including flowers, numbers and insects.
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Stoneware
Pottery that is classified as a pot in the West is usually regarded as porcelain in Chinese terms, where the group of pots is not recognized, so the definition of porcelain is somewhat different, encompassing all the objects that are triggered with high energy. Terms such as "porcellaneous" and "near-porcelain" are often used to reflect this, and include goods which in Western terms are located on the border of the pot and porcelain. High-powered stonewares are numerous from the start, and include many high prestige items, including for imperial use, as well as a large number of everyday utilitarian pots. Usually they achieve their reputation with their glazes. Most celadon groups, including Longquan celadon, especially earlier ones, can be classified as stoneware, and all classic Jian and Jizhou items.
In contrast, Yixing yixing pots and cups made from Yixing clay from Jiangsu province are usually left without glaze, and are not washed after use, because clay is believed to enhance the taste of tea, especially once it has obtained patina from prolonged use. There are actually a number of different clays, providing various colors. This pot is unusual because it is often signed by their pottery craftsmen, which is very rare in China, probably because they are related to the literati culture, which is where Jiangsu is a strong fortress. The earliest databases are from 1533 burial in Nanjing. Examples that are meticulously decorated, often with rectangular bodies, are exported to Europe from the 18th century, and these and pots for local use often have poems written on them. As well as teaware objects and tables such as brush-breaks, fruits and other natural shapes are modeled as ornaments. Production continues today, generally using a simpler form.
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Fakes and reproduction
Chinese craftsmen have a long tradition of loan design and decorative features of previous items. While ceramics with borrowed features can sometimes cause problems of origin, they will generally not be considered as reproductions or fakes. However, fakes and reproductions have also been made many times over the long history of Chinese ceramics and continue to be made today in ever increasing numbers. Reproduction of Song Dynasty celadon Longquan was made in Jingdezhen at the beginning of the 18th century, but false counterfeits were also made using special clay that was artificially aged with boiled in meat broth, storage and storage in the sewer. PÃÆ'¨re d'Entrecolles notes that by this means the goods can be passed as hundreds of years.
At the end of the 19th century, the fake Kangxi period famille noire was made to convince the experts of the day. Many such pieces can still be seen in today's museum, such as pieces of original Kangxi porcelain adorned in the late nineteenth century with enamel. An expert body of modern opinion states that porcelain decorated with enamel was not made at all during the Kangxi period, although this view is disputed. A mode for the Kangxi period (1662 to 1722) blue and white goods grew by a large proportion in Europe during the last years of the 19th century and triggered production in Jingdezhen a large quantity of porcelain items similar to ceramics. previous period. Such blue and white goods are neither imitations nor even convincing reproductions, although some pieces carry the four characters of the Kangxi government that continue to cause confusion to this day. Kangxi reigns-the mark in the form shown in the illustration only occurs on goods made towards the end of the 19th century or later, without exception.
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